Appendix I: Political Leaders in 1873

The Kitáb-i-Aqdas was revealed by Bahá’u’lláh in 1873 during a period of profound political transformation across the world. Empires, monarchies, and newly independent republics coexisted in a rapidly changing global order, providing the historical context in which the laws and principles of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas were first addressed to humanity.

Table: Political Leaders Of the Americas

Nation / Power Status (1873) Independence Year Head of State (in 1873) Title
United States Independent 1776 Ulysses S. Grant President
Haiti Independent 1804 Michel Domingue President
Paraguay Independent 1811 Salvador Jovellanos President
Venezuela Independent 1811 Antonio Guzmán Blanco President
Argentina Independent 1816 Domingo Faustino Sarmiento President
Chile Independent 1818 Federico Errázuriz Zañartu President
Colombia Independent 1819 Manuel Murillo Toro President
Mexico Independent 1821 Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada President
Peru Independent 1821 Manuel Pardo y Lavalle President
Guatemala Independent 1821 Justo Rufino Barrios President
El Salvador Independent 1821 Santiago González President
Honduras Independent 1821 Carlos Céleo Arias President
Nicaragua Independent 1821 José Diriangén Dávila President
Costa Rica Independent 1821 Tomás Guardia Gutiérrez President
Brazil Independent 1822 Pedro II Emperor
Ecuador Independent 1822 Gabriel García Moreno President
Bolivia Independent 1825 Adolfo Ballivián President
Uruguay Independent 1825 Tomás Gomensoro Interim President
Dominican Republic Independent 1844 Ignacio González President
United Kingdom Colonial Power N/A Queen Victoria Queen
Spain Colonial Power N/A Emilio Castelar President1
Netherlands Colonial Power N/A William III King
France Colonial Power N/A Patrice de MacMahon President2
Denmark Colonial Power N/A Christian IX King

Table: Political Leaders Of Europe

Nation Political Status (1873) Head of State (in 1873) Title
German Empire Empire Wilhelm I Emperor (Kaiser)
Austria Hungary Dual Monarchy Franz Joseph I Emperor King
United Kingdom Monarchy Queen Victoria Queen
Russian Empire Empire Alexander II Emperor (Tsar)
French Republic Republic Patrice de MacMahon President
Ottoman Empire Empire Sultan Abdülaziz Sultan Padishah
Kingdom of Italy Monarchy Victor Emmanuel II King
Spain Republic* Emilio Castelar President*
Kingdom of Portugal Monarchy Luís I King
Kingdom of Sweden Monarchy Oscar II King
Kingdom of Greece Monarchy George I King
Kingdom of Belgium Monarchy Leopold II King
Kingdom of the Netherlands Monarchy William III King

Table: Political Leaders Of Africa

Nation / State Political Status (1873) Head of State (in 1873) Title
Ethiopian Empire Independent Empire Yohannes IV Emperor (Nəgusä Nägäst)
Republic of Liberia Independent Republic Joseph Jenkins Roberts President
Egypt Khedivate Autonomous State under Ottoman suzerainty Isma’il Pasha Khedive
Sultanate of Morocco Independent Sultanate Hassan I Sultan
Tunis Beylik Autonomous State under Ottoman suzerainty Muhammad III as Sadiq Bey
Oman and Zanzibar Sultanate Independent Sayyid Barghash bin Said Sultan
Asante Empire Independent Empire Kofi Karikari Asantehene
Merina Kingdom Madagascar Independent Kingdom Ranavalona II Queen

Table: Political Leaders Of Asia

Nation / State Political Status (1873) Head of State (in 1873) Title
Qing Dynasty China Empire Tongzhi Emperor Emperor
Meiji Japan Empire Emperor Meiji (Mutsuhito) Emperor
Persia Qajar Dynasty Empire Nasser al Din Shah Qajar Shah (King of Kings)
Siam Thailand Kingdom Chulalongkorn (Rama V) King
Afghanistan Emirate Sher Ali Khan Amir
Vietnam Nguyễn Dynasty Empire under increasing French pressure Tự Đức Emperor
British India Colonial Crown Rule Queen Victoria Empress of India
Dutch East Indies Indonesia Colony William III King Sovereign Power
Joseon Korea Kingdom Gojong King
Khivan Khanate Khanate conquered by Russia in 1873 Muhammad Rahim Khan II Khan

  1. The Spanish political situation was highly unstable in 1873. King Amadeo I abdicated in February, and the First Spanish Republic was proclaimed. Therefore Spain’s head of state in the latter half of 1873, ruling Cuba and Puerto Rico, was the President of the Executive Power Emilio Castelar.↩︎

  2. France was under the Third Republic in 1873. It was not ruled by a monarch but by a President, Patrice de MacMahon, who governed the French colonies in the Americas such as French Guiana and Martinique.↩︎